Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth - Revision history

Wiki Gardener: /* The Low-carbon City */

2015-01-08T11:57:24Z

The Low-carbon City

Wiki Gardener at 11:56, 8 January 2015

2015-01-08T11:56:04Z

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Ranisha at 13:04, 20 August 2014

2014-08-20T13:04:46Z

Ranisha at 08:57, 20 August 2014

2014-08-20T08:57:19Z

Ranisha at 08:55, 20 August 2014

2014-08-20T08:55:34Z

Ranisha at 08:41, 20 August 2014

2014-08-20T08:41:36Z

Ranisha at 08:37, 20 August 2014

2014-08-20T08:37:36Z

Fungai Cecilia Sandamu at 08:01, 22 April 2013

2013-04-22T08:01:01Z

Fungai Cecilia Sandamu: /* Towards Low-Carbon Transport: Avoid/Reduce – Shift – Improve */

2013-04-22T08:00:20Z

Towards Low-Carbon Transport: Avoid/Reduce – Shift – Improve

Fungai Cecilia Sandamu at 07:57, 22 April 2013

2013-04-22T07:57:50Z

Show changes

@@ Line 101: / Line 101: @@
 [[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#toc|►Go to Top]]
@@ Line 111: / Line 112: @@
 <u>It is fundamental that a set of measures simultaneously:</u>
 #Pushes transport users out of the car or gives incentives to prospective users not to buy a car and, at the same time
 #Pulls them to the low carbon modes public and non-motorised transport.
-<p style="text-align: center">[[File:Urban Transport Policies and Packages.png|thumb|center|613px|Urabn Transport Policies and Packages|alt=Urabn Transport Policies and Packages]]</p>Promoting environmentally friendly modes can increase the attractiveness of a city considerably, and attract both companies and well-qualified employees. Rail modes are rapid and comfortable but less flexible. Buses and mini-buses add local flexibility to the overall system and have the advantage of more speed and comfort, which makes them more competitive to cars. While many Asian cities from Manila to Urumqi invest heavily in highways and motorised transport, the high density of these cities makes them ideal candidates to build an efficient, economically lucrative public transport system from which environment and society can profit.
+<p style="text-align: center">[[File:Urban Transport Policies and Packages.png|thumb|center|613px|Urban Transport Policies and Packages|alt=Urabn Transport Policies and Packages]]</p>Promoting environmentally friendly modes can increase the attractiveness of a city considerably, and attract both companies and well-qualified employees. Rail modes are rapid and comfortable but less flexible. Buses and mini-buses add local flexibility to the overall system and have the advantage of more speed and comfort, which makes them more competitive to cars. While many Asian cities from Manila to Urumqi invest heavily in highways and motorised transport, the high density of these cities makes them ideal candidates to build an efficient, economically lucrative public transport system from which environment and society can profit.Road space in most cases cannot be extended in cities, and it makes also no sense, since induces traffic will quickly full up additional space. Therefore the decision is vital on how to best use existing road space. In some advanced cities road space in some inner city streets is only given to Mass Transit, cycling and walking<ref name="D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany">D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany</ref>.
 [[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#toc|►Go to Top]]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 [[Portal:Mobility|►Back to Mobility Portal]]<br/>
@@ Line 15: / Line 14: @@
 Current models of development promote the automobile as a symbol of well-being and societal advance. Unfortunately, this so-called ‘American way of life’ is doomed to fail in times of increasing resource and oil scarcity. At the moment, many industrialised countries struggle to overcome the car-dependency and face strong difficulties to turn back, while an increasing number of industrialised cities are in the process of breaking the trend. In light of this experience, it becomes even more important for developing countries to not end up in the same trap but choose a more sustainable path<ref name="D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany">D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany</ref>.
-[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#Overview|►Go to Top]]
+[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#toc|►Go to Top]]
 = Towards Low-Carbon Transport: Avoid/Reduce – Shift – Improve =
@@ Line 37: / Line 36: @@
 *A long time-scale is determined by infrastructure decisions. For example, peripheral land can be developed into low-density suburbia, or clearly structured with peri-centres, semi-autonomous services, shopping infrastructures and mass rapid transit systems<ref name="D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany">D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany</ref>.
-[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#Overview|►Go to Top]]
+[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#toc|►Go to Top]]
 = Policy Packages for Sustainable Development =
@@ Line 43: / Line 42: @@
 In many cases, policy packages or sets of measures produce considerably synergies that lead to an overall effect that goes beyond the sum of their singular impacts. Sustainable transport policies consist not only of a set of measures but also target a coherent set of goals. Climate change is crucial for many Asian cities, as their Himalayan water supplies melt away or they face the danger of rising sea-levels, floods or droughts. However, in many cities, climate change is not the most relevant issue in the short-term<ref name="D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany">D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany</ref>.
-[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#Overview|►Go to Top]]
+[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#toc|►Go to Top]]
 == The National Policy Packages ==
@@ Line 69: / Line 68: @@
 *Crucial is an open and appropriate communication policy to let the public understand the underlying principles and reasoning for such policies<ref name="D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany">D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany</ref>.
-[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#Overview|►Go to Top]]
+[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#toc|►Go to Top]]
 == Fuel Economy Standards ==
@@ Line 75: / Line 74: @@
 In addition to price signals, a main instrument to force production of fuel-efficient cars is fuel efficiency of fuel economy standards for car producers. This policy mechanism usually specifies, through a regulatory or political process, the average per-kilometre fuel consumption of new vehicles sold in a given year. Fuel-economy standards are intended to induce innovation in vehicle technologies to curb or reduce oil consumption. Fuel-efficiency standards are meanwhile the most effective climate policy tool in the USA, while the understated fuel taxes are not supporting shifts towards more sustainable transport modes. As car drivers often do not consider fuel consumption when they purchase automobiles, obligatory standards address a crucial market failure. As a disadvantage, they do not influence driving behaviour, and might even induce additional driving (the so-called rebound effect) when no price signals are in place. Government can also act directly by taking their own measures. For example, they can incentivise public transit in their own ranks by providing mobility lump sums for government employees, instead of car benefits. This sets an example for all citizens and can also help capital cities such as Bangkok or Beijing in their drive towards sustainable transport systems. Governments can also choose to purchase highly fuel-efficient duty vehicles<ref name="D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany">D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany</ref>.
-[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#Overview|►Go to Top]]
+[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#toc|►Go to Top]]
 == Urban Transport Policies or Programmes ==
@@ Line 83: / Line 82: @@
 Under this principle national transportation funds can be dedicated at a much larger scale to public transport, bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. A sustainable urban transport policy or program systematically supports cities to invest in low carbon transport systems. Funding is usually related to some conditions, e.g. earmarked for specific measures or the preparation of a comprehensive integrated transport plan<ref name="D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany">D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany</ref>.
-[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#Overview|►Go to Top]]
+[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#toc|►Go to Top]]
 == The Low-carbon City ==
@@ Line 97: / Line 96: @@
 Road space in most cases cannot be extended in cities, and it makes also no sense, since induces traffic will quickly full up additional space. Therefore the decision is vital on how to best use existing road space. In some advanced cities road space in some inner city streets is only given to Mass Transit, cycling and walking<ref name="D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany">D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany</ref>.
-[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#Overview|►Go to Top]]
+[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#toc|►Go to Top]]
 = How can a global deal support low-carbon transportation? =
@@ Line 105: / Line 104: @@
 For reductions, not a single policy but a set of integrated measures is required to achieve a decarbonisation of transportation. Low carbon transport strategies are well suited and related to a sustainable transport policy and worth being carefully checked and considered by transport ministries in the coming years<ref name="D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany">D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany</ref>.
-[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#Overview|►Go to Top]]
+[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#toc|►Go to Top]]
 = Further Information =
@@ Line 111: / Line 110: @@
 Further and more detailed information can be found on the homepage of the Sustainable Urban Transport Project. The [http://www.sutp.org/ Sustainable Urban Transport Project] aims to help developing world cities achieve their sustainable transport goals, through the dissemination of information about international experience, policy advice, training and capacity building.
-[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#Overview|►Go to Top]]
+[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#toc|►Go to Top]]
 = References =
@@ Line 117: / Line 116: @@
 <references /><br/>
 [[Category:Mobility]]

@@ Line 15: / Line 15: @@
 Current models of development promote the automobile as a symbol of well-being and societal advance. Unfortunately, this so-called ‘American way of life’ is doomed to fail in times of increasing resource and oil scarcity. At the moment, many industrialised countries struggle to overcome the car-dependency and face strong difficulties to turn back, while an increasing number of industrialised cities are in the process of breaking the trend. In light of this experience, it becomes even more important for developing countries to not end up in the same trap but choose a more sustainable path<ref name="D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany">D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany</ref>.
-[[Low_Carbon_Transport_&_Green_Growth#Overview|►Go to Top]]
+[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#Overview|►Go to Top]]
 = Towards Low-Carbon Transport: Avoid/Reduce – Shift – Improve =
@@ Line 27: / Line 27: @@
 Such a coherent approach has the potential to contribute to emission reductions beyond current expectations. It also would transcend current piecemeal measures such as introducing a few but very expensive hydrogen buses. Instead, sector-wide policies and city-wide schemes can achieve reasonable scales.
 <p style="text-align: center">[[File:Sustainable Transport Avoid.Reduce - Shift - Improve Approach.png|thumb|center|450px|Sustainable Transport: Avoid/Reduce - Shift - Improve|alt=Sustainable Transport: Avoid/Reduce - Shift - Improve]]</p>
 By enabling a less car-dependent mobility, developing countries can successfully avoid the high-level of car-dependency and carbon-lock-in syndromes in politics and society.
@@ Line 35: / Line 37: @@
 *A long time-scale is determined by infrastructure decisions. For example, peripheral land can be developed into low-density suburbia, or clearly structured with peri-centres, semi-autonomous services, shopping infrastructures and mass rapid transit systems<ref name="D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany">D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany</ref>.
-<br/>
+[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#Overview|►Go to Top]]
 = Policy Packages for Sustainable Development =
@@ Line 41: / Line 43: @@
 In many cases, policy packages or sets of measures produce considerably synergies that lead to an overall effect that goes beyond the sum of their singular impacts. Sustainable transport policies consist not only of a set of measures but also target a coherent set of goals. Climate change is crucial for many Asian cities, as their Himalayan water supplies melt away or they face the danger of rising sea-levels, floods or droughts. However, in many cities, climate change is not the most relevant issue in the short-term<ref name="D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany">D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany</ref>.
-<br/>
+[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#Overview|►Go to Top]]
 == The National Policy Packages ==
@@ Line 52: / Line 54: @@
 For most developed countries with high levels of motorisation the '''deluxe package''' allows further reduction. This includes high taxation for fuels as well as vehicles and investments in new technology and research. However, countries have to make sure that measures, described in the other packages, are effectively implemented, as each package builds on the previous steps<ref name="D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany">D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany</ref>.
 <p style="text-align: center">[[File:National Policies and Packages for Sustainable Transport.png|frame|center|580px|National Policies and Packages for Sustainable Transport|alt=National Policies and Packages for Sustainable Transport.png]]</p><p style="text-align: center"><br/></p>
 == Fuel Prices ==
@@ Line 65: / Line 69: @@
 *Crucial is an open and appropriate communication policy to let the public understand the underlying principles and reasoning for such policies<ref name="D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany">D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany</ref>.
-<br/>
+[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#Overview|►Go to Top]]
 == Fuel Economy Standards ==
@@ Line 71: / Line 75: @@
 In addition to price signals, a main instrument to force production of fuel-efficient cars is fuel efficiency of fuel economy standards for car producers. This policy mechanism usually specifies, through a regulatory or political process, the average per-kilometre fuel consumption of new vehicles sold in a given year. Fuel-economy standards are intended to induce innovation in vehicle technologies to curb or reduce oil consumption. Fuel-efficiency standards are meanwhile the most effective climate policy tool in the USA, while the understated fuel taxes are not supporting shifts towards more sustainable transport modes. As car drivers often do not consider fuel consumption when they purchase automobiles, obligatory standards address a crucial market failure. As a disadvantage, they do not influence driving behaviour, and might even induce additional driving (the so-called rebound effect) when no price signals are in place. Government can also act directly by taking their own measures. For example, they can incentivise public transit in their own ranks by providing mobility lump sums for government employees, instead of car benefits. This sets an example for all citizens and can also help capital cities such as Bangkok or Beijing in their drive towards sustainable transport systems. Governments can also choose to purchase highly fuel-efficient duty vehicles<ref name="D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany">D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany</ref>.
-<br/>
+[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#Overview|►Go to Top]]
 == Urban Transport Policies or Programmes ==
@@ Line 79: / Line 83: @@
 Under this principle national transportation funds can be dedicated at a much larger scale to public transport, bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. A sustainable urban transport policy or program systematically supports cities to invest in low carbon transport systems. Funding is usually related to some conditions, e.g. earmarked for specific measures or the preparation of a comprehensive integrated transport plan<ref name="D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany">D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany</ref>.
-<br/>
+[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#Overview|►Go to Top]]
 == The Low-carbon City ==
@@ Line 93: / Line 97: @@
 Road space in most cases cannot be extended in cities, and it makes also no sense, since induces traffic will quickly full up additional space. Therefore the decision is vital on how to best use existing road space. In some advanced cities road space in some inner city streets is only given to Mass Transit, cycling and walking<ref name="D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany">D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany</ref>.
-<br/>
+[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#Overview|►Go to Top]]
 = How can a global deal support low-carbon transportation? =
@@ Line 101: / Line 105: @@
 For reductions, not a single policy but a set of integrated measures is required to achieve a decarbonisation of transportation. Low carbon transport strategies are well suited and related to a sustainable transport policy and worth being carefully checked and considered by transport ministries in the coming years<ref name="D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany">D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany</ref>.
-<br/>
+[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#Overview|►Go to Top]]
 = Further Information =
@@ Line 107: / Line 111: @@
 Further and more detailed information can be found on the homepage of the Sustainable Urban Transport Project. The [http://www.sutp.org/ Sustainable Urban Transport Project] aims to help developing world cities achieve their sustainable transport goals, through the dissemination of information about international experience, policy advice, training and capacity building.
-<br/>
+[[Low Carbon Transport & Green Growth#Overview|►Go to Top]]
 = References =
@@ Line 113: / Line 117: @@
 <references /><br/>
 [[Category:Transport]]

@@ Line 15: / Line 15: @@
 Current models of development promote the automobile as a symbol of well-being and societal advance. Unfortunately, this so-called ‘American way of life’ is doomed to fail in times of increasing resource and oil scarcity. At the moment, many industrialised countries struggle to overcome the car-dependency and face strong difficulties to turn back, while an increasing number of industrialised cities are in the process of breaking the trend. In light of this experience, it becomes even more important for developing countries to not end up in the same trap but choose a more sustainable path<ref name="D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany">D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany</ref>.
-<br/>
+[[Low_Carbon_Transport_&_Green_Growth#Overview|►Go to Top]]
 = Towards Low-Carbon Transport: Avoid/Reduce – Shift – Improve =
@@ Line 113: / Line 113: @@
 <references /><br/>
 [[Category:Mobility]]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 = Overview =
@@ Line 73: / Line 75: @@
 == Urban Transport Policies or Programmes ==
-A third key measure is enabling local and urban authorities to advance low-carbon transportation. This is especially important when it comes to investments in low-carbon infrastructure. The major challenge that faces urban policy-makers is to [[Financing_Sustainable_Urban_Transport|finance a sustainable urban transport system]] and ensure sustainable funding in the long-term. By providing the necessary financial resources for investment and institutional building, the capacity to raise and manage funding at the local level can be build up and the fragmentation of responsibilities amongst the relevant (transport) authorities can be defeated.
+A third key measure is enabling local and urban authorities to advance low-carbon transportation. This is especially important when it comes to investments in low-carbon infrastructure. The major challenge that faces urban policy-makers is to [[Financing Sustainable Urban Transport|finance a sustainable urban transport system]] and ensure sustainable funding in the long-term. By providing the necessary financial resources for investment and institutional building, the capacity to raise and manage funding at the local level can be build up and the fragmentation of responsibilities amongst the relevant (transport) authorities can be defeated.
 Under this principle national transportation funds can be dedicated at a much larger scale to public transport, bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. A sustainable urban transport policy or program systematically supports cities to invest in low carbon transport systems. Funding is usually related to some conditions, e.g. earmarked for specific measures or the preparation of a comprehensive integrated transport plan<ref name="D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany">D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany</ref>.
@@ Line 111: / Line 113: @@
 <references /><br/>
 [[Category:Transport]]

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
-= The Challenge =
+= Overview =
 While transportation is crucial to the economy and individuals, as a sector it is also a significant source of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and can affect human welfare negatively. Transport is currently responsible for 13% of greenhouse gas emissions worldwide and 23% of global carbon dioxide emissions (CO<sub>2</sub>) from fuel combustion are transport related. Transport related CO<sub>2</sub> emissions are expected to increase by 57% worldwide in the period 2005 – 2030, much more than emissions from other sector. But there is consensus in science and politics that global GHG emissions have to be reduced by more than 80% by 2050 from 1990 levels in order to avoid catastrophic global warming. When contrasting the current growth rate of transport-related emissions with aspired reduction targets, it is obvious, that the transport sector needs to start contributing to mitigation efforts now.
 Low-carbon transport is confronted with a number of barriers that need to be encountered by strategic action. These barriers are:
@@ Line 10: / Line 12: @@
 Current models of development promote the automobile as a symbol of well-being and societal advance. Unfortunately, this so-called ‘American way of life’ is doomed to fail in times of increasing resource and oil scarcity. At the moment, many industrialised countries struggle to overcome the car-dependency and face strong difficulties to turn back, while an increasing number of industrialised cities are in the process of breaking the trend. In light of this experience, it becomes even more important for developing countries to not end up in the same trap but choose a more sustainable path<ref name="D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany">D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany</ref>.
 <br/>
@@ Line 17: / Line 17: @@
 = Towards Low-Carbon Transport: Avoid/Reduce – Shift – Improve =
-Ambitious emission reduction targets can best be reach4d when all factors simultaneously contribute to mitigation. A low-carbon transportation system needs more than a piecemeal approach and requires improvement in all dimensions – travel demand, mode choice, and technology – simultaneously to quickly gain traction.
+Ambitious emission reduction targets can best be reached when all factors simultaneously contribute to mitigation. A low-carbon transportation system needs more than a piecemeal approach and requires improvement in all dimensions – travel demand, mode choice, and technology – simultaneously to quickly gain traction.
 A main framework for strategic action is the so-called Avoid/Reduce-Shift-Improve approach, where infrastructure is provided in such a way that:
@@ Line 24: / Line 24: @@
 *Technological measures improve the vehicle fleet and fuels.
-Such a coherent approach has the potential to contribute to emission reductions beyond current expectations. It also would transcend current piecemeal measures such as introducing a few but very expensive hydrogen busses. Instead, sector-wide policies and city-wide schemes can achieve reasonable scales.
+Such a coherent approach has the potential to contribute to emission reductions beyond current expectations. It also would transcend current piecemeal measures such as introducing a few but very expensive hydrogen buses. Instead, sector-wide policies and city-wide schemes can achieve reasonable scales.
 <p style="text-align: center">[[File:Sustainable Transport Avoid.Reduce - Shift - Improve Approach.png|thumb|center|450px|Sustainable Transport: Avoid/Reduce - Shift - Improve|alt=Sustainable Transport: Avoid/Reduce - Shift - Improve]]</p>
 By enabling a less car-dependent mobility, developing countries can successfully avoid the high-level of car-dependency and carbon-lock-in syndromes in politics and society.
@@ Line 32: / Line 32: @@
 *A medium time-frame addresses vehicle technology. It is determined by the life span of automobiles, the speed of phase-in and the percentage of ‘efficient’ cars bought in a specific year. Altogether, this time-span is approximately 10-15 years.
 *A long time-scale is determined by infrastructure decisions. For example, peripheral land can be developed into low-density suburbia, or clearly structured with peri-centres, semi-autonomous services, shopping infrastructures and mass rapid transit systems<ref name="D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany">D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany</ref>.
 <br/>
@@ Line 75: / Line 73: @@
 == Urban Transport Policies or Programmes ==
-A third key measure is enabling local and urban authorities to advance low-carbon transportation. This is especially important when it comes to investments in low-carbon infrastructure. The major challenge that faces urban policy-makers is to [[Financing Sustainable Urban Transport|finance a sustainable urban transport system]] and ensure sustainable funding in the long-term. By providing the necessary financial resources for investment and institutional building, the capacity to raise and manage funding at the local level can be build up and the fragmentation of responsibilities amongst the relevant (transport) authorities can be defeated.
+A third key measure is enabling local and urban authorities to advance low-carbon transportation. This is especially important when it comes to investments in low-carbon infrastructure. The major challenge that faces urban policy-makers is to [[Financing_Sustainable_Urban_Transport|finance a sustainable urban transport system]] and ensure sustainable funding in the long-term. By providing the necessary financial resources for investment and institutional building, the capacity to raise and manage funding at the local level can be build up and the fragmentation of responsibilities amongst the relevant (transport) authorities can be defeated.
 Under this principle national transportation funds can be dedicated at a much larger scale to public transport, bicycle and pedestrian infrastructure. A sustainable urban transport policy or program systematically supports cities to invest in low carbon transport systems. Funding is usually related to some conditions, e.g. earmarked for specific measures or the preparation of a comprehensive integrated transport plan<ref name="D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany">D. Bongardt, M. Breithaupt, F. Creutzig 2011, Beyond the Fossil City: Towards low Carbon Transport and Green Growth, Eschborn, Germany</ref>.
@@ Line 113: / Line 111: @@
 <references /><br/>
 [[Category:Mobility]]

@@ Line 12: / Line 12: @@
 <br/>
 = Towards Low-Carbon Transport: Avoid/Reduce – Shift – Improve =
@@ Line 23: / Line 24: @@
 Such a coherent approach has the potential to contribute to emission reductions beyond current expectations. It also would transcend current piecemeal measures such as introducing a few but very expensive hydrogen busses. Instead, sector-wide policies and city-wide schemes can achieve reasonable scales.
-<p style="text-align: center">[[File:Sustainable Transport Avoid.Reduce - Shift - Improve Approach.png|frame|center|548px|Sustainable Transport: Avoid/Reduce - Shift - Improve|alt=Sustainable Transport: Avoid/Reduce - Shift - Improve]]</p>
+<p style="text-align: center">[[File:Sustainable Transport Avoid.Reduce - Shift - Improve Approach.png|frame|center|400px|Sustainable Transport: Avoid/Reduce - Shift - Improve|alt=Sustainable Transport: Avoid/Reduce - Shift - Improve]]</p>
 By enabling a less car-dependent mobility, developing countries can successfully avoid the high-level of car-dependency and carbon-lock-in syndromes in politics and society.
@@ Line 32: / Line 33: @@
 <br/>
 = Policy Packages for Sustainable Development =