Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) - Revision history

Johanna at 11:42, 8 May 2020

2020-05-08T11:42:32Z

Ranisha: /* Further Information */

2020-02-25T14:16:28Z

Further Information

Ranisha: /* Further Information */

2020-02-25T14:09:24Z

Further Information

Hellpap: /* What is LPG */

2020-01-27T09:31:04Z

What is LPG

Hellpap: /* LPG Supply */

2020-01-26T18:56:37Z

LPG Supply

Hellpap: /* LPG Supply */

2020-01-26T18:40:22Z

LPG Supply

Hellpap at 17:58, 26 January 2020

2020-01-26T17:58:34Z

Hellpap: /* What is LPG */

2019-12-31T10:52:40Z

What is LPG

Hellpap: /* LPG Cooking Systems */

2019-12-30T21:48:47Z

LPG Cooking Systems

Hellpap: /* Value Chain and Supply Route */

2019-12-30T20:46:00Z

Value Chain and Supply Route

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 = What is LPG<br/> =
@@ Line 25: / Line 24: @@
 <br/>
 = Supply and Demand<br/> =
 === LPG Supply<br/> ===
@@ Line 50: / Line 48: @@
 <u>'''3. Where is LPG produced?'''</u><br/>
-LPG is currently produced in all continents. North America and the Middle East are the largest LPG producer followed by some Asian regions.&nbsp; Africa is producing less than 10% of the world production. Thus in 2014, only 16 million tons of LPG came from Africa, most of it from Algeria. <br/>
+LPG is currently produced in all continents. North America and the Middle East are the largest LPG producer followed by some Asian regions.&nbsp; Africa is producing less than 10% of the world production. Thus in 2014, only 16 million tons of LPG came from Africa, most of it from Algeria.<br/>
 North American production capacities are expected to grow further due to the expansion in the shale gas sector<ref name="PR Newswire, 2013 - http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-liquefied-petroleum-gas-lpg-market-is-expected-to-reach-usd-26641-billion-in-2018-transparency-market-research-219382641.html">PR Newswire, 2013 - http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-liquefied-petroleum-gas-lpg-market-is-expected-to-reach-usd-26641-billion-in-2018-transparency-market-research-219382641.html</ref>. It is also expected that LPG production will increase in West Africa, Australia, Russia and China<ref name="Argus, 2013 - http://media.argusmedia.com/~/media/Files/PDFs/White Paper/Statistical Review of Global LP Gas 2013.pdf">Argus, 2013 - http://media.argusmedia.com/~/media/Files/PDFs/White Paper/Statistical Review of Global LP Gas 2013.pdf</ref>. This increase is mainly possible through the development of refineries which allow the extraction of LPG.<br/>
@@ Line 66: / Line 64: @@
 <br/>
 === LPG Demand ===
@@ Line 240: / Line 239: @@
 <br/>
-{| style="width: 100%" border="1" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="5"
+{| style="width: 100%" cellspacing="1" cellpadding="5" border="1"
 |-
-| style="width: 113px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204)" |
+| style="width: 113px;  background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204)" | <br/>
-| style="width: 373px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204)" | '''Advantages'''
+| style="width: 373px;  background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204)" | '''Advantages'''
-| style="width: 335px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204)" | '''Disadvantages'''
+| style="width: 335px;  background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204)" | '''Disadvantages'''
 |-
 | style="width: 113px" | '''Overall'''
@@ Line 428: / Line 427: @@
 === Tabular Overview of Challenges ===
-{| style="width: 100%" border="1" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0"
+{| style="width: 100%" cellspacing="0" cellpadding="0" border="1"
 |-
-| style="width: 133px; height: 17px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204)" | '''Barrier'''
+| style="width: 133px;  height: 17px;  background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204)" | '''Barrier'''
-| style="width: 498px; height: 17px; background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204)" | <p style="text-align: center">'''Characteristics'''</p>
+| style="width: 498px;  height: 17px;  background-color: rgb(204, 204, 204)" | <p style="text-align: center">'''Characteristics'''</p>
 |-
-| style="width: 133px; height: 17px" | 1. Regulation
+| style="width: 133px;  height: 17px" | 1. Regulation
-| style="width: 498px; height: 17px" |
+| style="width: 498px;  height: 17px" |
 *The absence of regulation leads to security risks and black markets
 *Lacking regulations discourage potential investors
@@ Line 442: / Line 441: @@
 |-
-| style="width: 133px; height: 17px" | 2. Availability
+| style="width: 133px;  height: 17px" | 2. Availability
-| style="width: 498px; height: 17px" |
+| style="width: 498px;  height: 17px" |
 *Storage capacities are insufficient to compensate demand fluctuations
 *Filling stations may not be available or have lacking capacities
@@ Line 453: / Line 452: @@
 |-
-| style="width: 133px; height: 18px" | 3. Affordability
+| style="width: 133px;  height: 18px" | 3. Affordability
-| style="width: 498px; height: 18px" |
+| style="width: 498px;  height: 18px" |
 *High initial costs compared to other fuels
 *High running costs esp. in remote areas
@@ Line 462: / Line 461: @@
 |-
-| style="width: 133px; height: 17px" | 4. Awareness
+| style="width: 133px;  height: 17px" | 4. Awareness
-| style="width: 498px; height: 17px" |
+| style="width: 498px;  height: 17px" |
 *Health and environmental benefits of LPG are sometimes not known
 *Insecurity regarding price development of LPG
@@ Line 472: / Line 471: @@
 |-
-| style="width: 133px; height: 17px" | 5. Supply security
+| style="width: 133px;  height: 17px" | 5. Supply security
-| style="width: 498px; height: 17px" |
+| style="width: 498px;  height: 17px" |
 *Fossil fuel derivative therefore limited availability of LPG
 *Increasing demand of LPG from different sectors will lead to confcilts in the middle- and long-term
@@ Line 534: / Line 533: @@
 *[[Portal:Improved Cooking|Cooking Portal on Energypedia]]
 *[[BLEENS - Biogas, Liquefied Petroleum Gas, Electricity, Ethanol, Natural Gas, and Solar|BLEENS - Biogas, Liquefied Petroleum Gas, Electricity, Ethanol, Natural Gas, and Solar]]
-*[[Cooking with Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)|Cooking with Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)]]
+*[[LPG for cooking|Cooking with Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)]]
-*[[LPG Stoves|LPG Stoves]]
+*[[LPG cooking system|LPG Stoves]]
 *[[Cost-Benefit Analysis of LPG Cookstove Intervention|Cost-Benefit Analysis of LPG Cookstove Intervention]]
 *[[Access to Modern Energy|Access to Modern Energy]]
@@ Line 544: / Line 543: @@
 *[[Using Liquid Petroleum Gas in Mozambique Households|Using Liquid Petroleum Gas in Mozambique Households]]
 *[[From the 'Energy Ladder' to 'Fuel Stacking'|From the 'Energy Ladder' to 'Fuel Stacking']]
-*PAYG for LPG: https://www.engineeringforchange.org/news/challenges-opportunities-scaling-pay-go-lpg/
+*PAYG for LPG: [https://www.engineeringforchange.org/news/challenges-opportunities-scaling-pay-go-lpg/ https://www.engineeringforchange.org/news/challenges-opportunities-scaling-pay-go-lpg/]
-*LPG Smart Metering for Kenya: https://www.engineeringforchange.org/news/kenyan-bureau-standards-launched-worlds-first-lpg-smart-metering-standard/
+*LPG Smart Metering for Kenya: [https://www.engineeringforchange.org/news/kenyan-bureau-standards-launched-worlds-first-lpg-smart-metering-standard/ https://www.engineeringforchange.org/news/kenyan-bureau-standards-launched-worlds-first-lpg-smart-metering-standard/]
 = References =
@@ Line 552: / Line 552: @@
 <references />
 [[Category:Liquid_Petroleum_Gas_(LPG)]]

@@ Line 545: / Line 545: @@
 *[[From the 'Energy Ladder' to 'Fuel Stacking'|From the 'Energy Ladder' to 'Fuel Stacking']]
 *PAYG for LPG: https://www.engineeringforchange.org/news/challenges-opportunities-scaling-pay-go-lpg/
+*LPG Smart Metering for Kenya: https://www.engineeringforchange.org/news/kenyan-bureau-standards-launched-worlds-first-lpg-smart-metering-standard/

@@ Line 544: / Line 544: @@
 *[[Using Liquid Petroleum Gas in Mozambique Households|Using Liquid Petroleum Gas in Mozambique Households]]
 *[[From the 'Energy Ladder' to 'Fuel Stacking'|From the 'Energy Ladder' to 'Fuel Stacking']]
 <br/>
 = References =

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 = What is LPG<br/> =
@@ Line 5: / Line 6: @@
 Liquefied Gas is heavier than air and can therefore accumulate above the ground. This may lead to LPG-'lakes'. It is common practice to add a foul smelling odorant to the gas in order to detect leaks and reduce the risk of explosions.
 [[Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)#toc|► Go to Top]]
@@ Line 21: / Line 24: @@
 <br/>
 = Supply and Demand<br/> =

@@ Line 23: / Line 23: @@
 = Supply and Demand<br/> =
@@ Line 43: / Line 44: @@
 In the last 15 years, LPG productions has been growing continuously and has always exceeded consumption.&nbsp; This growth&nbsp; can largely be attributed to the gas extraction sector- whose LPG production capacities grew substantially. This especially includes the US-led expansion of shale gas extraction called 'fracking', which provides LPG as by product <ref name="Leija and Gist, 2013 - http://www.ogj.com/articles/print/volume-111/issue-6/processing/shale-gas-development-altering-lpg-demand--trade.html">Leija and Gist, 2013 - http://www.ogj.com/articles/print/volume-111/issue-6/processing/shale-gas-development-altering-lpg-demand--trade.html</ref>.&nbsp; Since 2011, LPG production has always been above 270 million tons per year, Thus, it reached 284 million tons/year in 2014<ref>Argus & WLPGA. Statistical review of global LPG 2014. Paris: World LP Gas Association; 2015.</ref>. Excess of LPG is partly vented or burned off by the oil and gas companies. &nbsp;&nbsp;<br/>
-<u>'''3. Where is LPG produced?'''</u><br/>North America was the largest LPG producer until recently, when the Middle East became the global supply leader due to strengthened local processing capacities. In 2012, 67 million tons of LPG were produced in the Middle East alone.
+<u>'''3. Where is LPG produced?'''</u><br/>
-North American production capacities are expected to grow again due to the expansion in the shale gas sector<ref name="PR Newswire, 2013 - http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-liquefied-petroleum-gas-lpg-market-is-expected-to-reach-usd-26641-billion-in-2018-transparency-market-research-219382641.html">PR Newswire, 2013 - http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-liquefied-petroleum-gas-lpg-market-is-expected-to-reach-usd-26641-billion-in-2018-transparency-market-research-219382641.html</ref>. It is also expected that LPGproduction will increase in West Africa, Australia, Russia and China<ref name="Argus, 2013 - http://media.argusmedia.com/~/media/Files/PDFs/White Paper/Statistical Review of Global LP Gas 2013.pdf">Argus, 2013 - http://media.argusmedia.com/~/media/Files/PDFs/White Paper/Statistical Review of Global LP Gas 2013.pdf</ref>. This increase is mainly possible through the development of refineries which allow the extraction of LPG.<br/>
+North American production capacities are expected to grow further due to the expansion in the shale gas sector<ref name="PR Newswire, 2013 - http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-liquefied-petroleum-gas-lpg-market-is-expected-to-reach-usd-26641-billion-in-2018-transparency-market-research-219382641.html">PR Newswire, 2013 - http://www.prnewswire.com/news-releases/global-liquefied-petroleum-gas-lpg-market-is-expected-to-reach-usd-26641-billion-in-2018-transparency-market-research-219382641.html</ref>. It is also expected that LPG production will increase in West Africa, Australia, Russia and China<ref name="Argus, 2013 - http://media.argusmedia.com/~/media/Files/PDFs/White Paper/Statistical Review of Global LP Gas 2013.pdf">Argus, 2013 - http://media.argusmedia.com/~/media/Files/PDFs/White Paper/Statistical Review of Global LP Gas 2013.pdf</ref>. This increase is mainly possible through the development of refineries which allow the extraction of LPG.<br/>
 <br/>
-<u>'''4. How much LPG will be available in the future?'''</u><br/>LPG is a byproduct of the oil and gas industry. Therefore, the supply of LPG is directly dependent on the extraction of fossil fuels. When fossil fuel extraction increases, more LPG becomes available. When it falls, LPG availability will also fall. While larger production capacities may open up from the development of new fossil fuel sources, it has to be highlighted that most conventional fossil fuel fields are already being exploited. Additional fossil fuel sources may be harnessed from unconventional sources. However, these are mostly linked to significant environmental risks.
+<u>'''4. How much LPG will be available in the future?'''</u><br/>As byproduct of the oil and gas industry the supply of LPG is directly dependent on the extraction of fossil fuels. When fossil fuel extraction increases, more LPG becomes available. When it falls, LPG availability will also fall. While larger production capacities may open up from the development of new fossil fuel sources, it has to be highlighted that most conventional fossil fuel fields are already being exploited. Additional fossil fuel sources may be harnessed from unconventional sources. However, these are mostly linked to significant environmental risks.
 More LPG may also be made available from accompanying gases that are currently being flared. This ressource offers 70 million tons of gas. First attempts to power villages by converting such accompanying gases to electricity are prepared as part of a specific High Impact Opportunities (HIO) under the UN Initiative "Sustainable Energy for All" (see [http://www.se4all.org/hio/phase-out-of-gas-flaring-from-oil-production/ SE4All]).<br/>

@@ Line 1: / Line 1: @@
 = What is LPG<br/> =
-'''Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)''' generally consists of butane (C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub>) or propane (C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub>) or a mixture of both. At room temperature, both gases are colourless and odourless. Propane has its boiling point at -42°C and butane at -0.5 °C. Under modest pressure or in cooler conditions, LPG transforms into a liquid state. LPG in domestic cylinders used for cooking generally comprises more butane than propane, because the fuel value per kilogram of butane is higher than propane and it liquefies under much lower pressure than propane and thus the handling is safer. National and international standards specify the minimum content of butane and a maximum LPG vapor pressure. When liquefied under pressure, the volume of butane and propane is reduced to around 1/260 of the gaseous aggregate state. The specific calorific value of LPG is around 46 MJ/kg or 12.78 kWh/kg depending on the composition of LPG. In comparison, wood has an energy content in the range of 14-18 MJ/kg or 3.89 - 5 kWh/kg (depending of the type of wood and the moisture content) and charcoal in the range of 27 - 33 MJ/kg or 7.5 - 8.34 kWh/kg (depending on the type of charcoal). If made available as a cooking energy fuel it could help to reduce the use of wood and biomass in households in developing countries.&nbsp;<br/>
+'''Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)''' is a blend of light hydrocarbon compounds. It mainly consists of butane (C<sub>4</sub>H<sub>10</sub>) or propane (C<sub>3</sub>H<sub>8</sub>) or a mixture of both. At room temperature, both gases are colourless and odourless. Propane has its boiling point at -42°C and butane at -0.5 °C. Under modest pressure or in cooler conditions, LPG transforms into a liquid state. LPG in domestic cylinders used for cooking generally comprises more butane than propane, because the fuel value per kilogram of butane is higher than propane and it liquefies under much lower pressure than propane and thus the handling is safer. National and international standards specify the minimum content of butane and a maximum LPG vapor pressure. When liquefied under pressure, the volume of butane and propane is reduced to around 1/260 of the gaseous aggregate state. The specific calorific value of LPG is around 46 MJ/kg or 12.78 kWh/kg depending on the composition of LPG. In comparison, wood has an energy content in the range of 14-18 MJ/kg or 3.89 - 5 kWh/kg (depending of the type of wood and the moisture content) and charcoal in the range of 27 - 33 MJ/kg or 7.5 - 8.34 kWh/kg (depending on the type of charcoal). If made available as a cooking energy fuel it could help to reduce the use of wood and biomass in households in developing countries.&nbsp;<br/>
-Liquefied Gas is heavier than air and can therefore accumulate above the ground. This may lead to LPG-'lakes'. It is common practice to add a foul smelling odorant to the gas in order to reduce the risk of explosions.
+Liquefied Gas is heavier than air and can therefore accumulate above the ground. This may lead to LPG-'lakes'. It is common practice to add a foul smelling odorant to the gas in order to detect leaks and reduce the risk of explosions.
 [[Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)#toc|► Go to Top]]
@@ Line 21: / Line 20: @@
 <br/>
 = Supply and Demand<br/> =
@@ Line 26: / Line 26: @@
 === LPG Supply<br/> ===
-<u>'''1. How is LPG produced?'''</u><br/>LPG is a byproduct of natural gas and oil extraction and crude oil refining. Around 60% of LPG stocks in the last years have been separated from raw gas and raw oil during the extraction of natural gas and oil from the earth, and the remaining 40% are a byproduct when crude oil is refined.<ref>https://www.wlpga.org/about-lpg/production-distribution/</ref>
+<u>'''1. How is LPG produced?'''</u><br/>LPG is a byproduct of natural gas and oil extraction and crude oil refining. Around 60% of LPG stocks in the last years have been separated from raw gas and raw oil during the extraction of natural gas and oil from the earth, and the remaining 40% have been a byproduct when crude oil is refined.<ref>https://www.wlpga.org/about-lpg/production-distribution/</ref>&nbsp;
 <br/><u>a. LPG from petroleum gas and oil extraction</u>
@@ Line 40: / Line 40: @@
 <br/><u>'''2. How much LPG is produced?'''</u>
-million tons of LPG were produced in 2008. By 2012, the global production had risen to 274 million tons (equivalent to a 19% increase).
+In the last 15 years, LPG productions has been growing continuously and has always exceeded consumption.&nbsp; This growth&nbsp; can largely be attributed to the gas extraction sector- whose LPG production capacities grew substantially. This especially includes the US-led expansion of shale gas extraction called 'fracking', which provides LPG as by product <ref name="Leija and Gist, 2013 - http://www.ogj.com/articles/print/volume-111/issue-6/processing/shale-gas-development-altering-lpg-demand--trade.html">Leija and Gist, 2013 - http://www.ogj.com/articles/print/volume-111/issue-6/processing/shale-gas-development-altering-lpg-demand--trade.html</ref>.&nbsp; In 2014, LPG production reached just over 284 million tonnes/year, while consumption reached just over 275 million tonnes/year (with an LPG excess of almost 10 million tonnes, equal to 3.5% of total production) (33). Some of this excess portion is vented or flared at oil and gas production sites on a daily basis, thereby wasting this valua-<br/>
-Between 2011 and 2012 production rose another 3%. This growth that can almost exclusively be attributed to the gas extraction sector- whose LPG production capacities grew 6%. This especially includes the US-led expansion of shale gas extraction 'fracking'- since the expansion of 'fracking' US LPG production rose by 8%<ref name="Leija and Gist, 2013 - http://www.ogj.com/articles/print/volume-111/issue-6/processing/shale-gas-development-altering-lpg-demand--trade.html">Leija and Gist, 2013 - http://www.ogj.com/articles/print/volume-111/issue-6/processing/shale-gas-development-altering-lpg-demand--trade.html</ref>.
+. Use, affordability and safety of liquefied petroleum gas<br/>| KfW Development Bank – Materials on Development 15 Financing, No. 7<br/>ble fuel resource and still putting the fuel carbon back into the atmosphere.230 million tons of LPG were produced in 2008. By 2012, the global production had risen to 274 million tons (equivalent to a 19% increase).
 <br/><u>'''3. Where is LPG produced?'''</u><br/>North America was the largest LPG producer until recently, when the Middle East became the global supply leader due to strengthened local processing capacities. In 2012, 67 million tons of LPG were produced in the Middle East alone.
@@ Line 111: / Line 113: @@
 <br/>
+<br/>
 = LPG Supply&nbsp; =
 == Value Chain and Supply Route ==
@@ Line 124: / Line 125: @@
 <br/>
 == Cylinder Distribution Systems ==
@@ Line 135: / Line 137: @@
 <br/>
 = LPG as a Cooking Fuel for Low-Income Households<br/> =
@@ Line 148: / Line 151: @@
 <br/>
 === LPG Cooking Systems<br/> ===
@@ Line 157: / Line 161: @@
 [[Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)#toc|► Go to Top]]<br/>
 == Advantages & Disadvantages of LPG as a Cooking Fuel for Low-income Households<br/> ==
@@ Line 541: / Line 546: @@
 <references />
 [[Category:Cooking]]

@@ Line 145: / Line 145: @@
 <br/>
 === LPG Cooking Systems<br/> ===
@@ Line 150: / Line 151: @@
 A typical cooking system which uses LPG is made up of a steel cylinder filled with LPG, a pressure controller, a tube connecting the cylinder to the pressure controller and the burner, and finally the burner itself. The burner can consist of one or more cooking tops.
-The size of the system depends on the size of the cylinder. Cylinders exist in various sizes e.g.: 2.7 kg, 6 kg, 12 kg or 16 kg. A survey in 20 countries showed that low-income countries households mainly use cylinders smaller than 6 kg<ref name="World Bank, 2011 - http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTOGMC/Resources/LPGReportWeb-Masami.pdf">World Bank, 2011 - http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTOGMC/Resources/LPGReportWeb-Masami.pdf</ref>. Nevertheless, the majority of currently available LPG cylinders are larger (up to 47.5 kg). This proves problematic for low-income households both in the acquisition as well as the recharge of LPG.
+The size of the system depends on the size of the cylinder. Cylinders exist in various sizes e.g.: 2.7 kg, 6 kg, 12 kg, 14,5 or 16 kg. A survey in 20 countries showed that low-income countries households mainly use cylinders smaller than 6 kg<ref name="World Bank, 2011 - http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTOGMC/Resources/LPGReportWeb-Masami.pdf">World Bank, 2011 - http://siteresources.worldbank.org/INTOGMC/Resources/LPGReportWeb-Masami.pdf</ref>. Nevertheless, the majority of currently available LPG cylinders are larger (up to 47.5 kg). This proves problematic for low-income households both in the acquisition as well as the recharge of LPG.
-[[Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)#toc|► Go to Top]]
+[[Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG)#toc|► Go to Top]]<br/>
 == Advantages & Disadvantages of LPG as a Cooking Fuel for Low-income Households<br/> ==

@@ Line 112: / Line 112: @@
 = LPG Supply&nbsp; =
 == Value Chain and Supply Route ==
-A number of different steps are necessary between the raw form of LPG up to the final consumer. A sophisticated infrastructure is required for the distribution. LPG either comes directly from gas wells or is a by-product of crude oil refining. Subsequently, it is delivered from supply points in a liquefied form to primary bulk storage facilities, where it is stored under refrigeration or pressurisation. The owners/operators of bulk storage facilities may also be the importers and have the necessary transport facilities. LPG for cooking is brought to cylinder filling plants. The cylinders are either owned by the filling company or by the consumers (see below the different distribution systems). The filled cylinders are distributed to a network of intermediaries, who operate depots and the necessary transportation facilities. The cylinders are supplied to retail points, where they are sold to customers. Empty cylinders are either returned along the chain to the filling plant or directly brought to a filling station by the customer.&nbsp;
+A number of different steps are necessary between the raw form of LPG up to the final consumer. A sophisticated infrastructure is required for the distribution. LPG either comes directly from gas wells or is a by-product of crude oil refining. Subsequently, it is delivered from supply points in a liquefied form to primary bulk storage facilities, where it is stored under refrigeration or pressurisation. The owners/operators of bulk storage facilities may also be the importers and have the necessary transport facilities. LPG for cooking is brought to cylinder filling plants. The cylinders are either owned by the bottling company or by distributers or by the consumers (see below the different distribution systems). The filled cylinders are distributed to a network of intermediaries, who operate depots and the necessary transportation facilities. The cylinders are supplied to retail points, where they are sold to customers. Empty cylinders are either returned along the chain to the filling plant or directly brought to a filling station by the customer.&nbsp;
 <br/>
 <p style="text-align: center">[[File:Route of LPG from production to the end-consumer.jpg|thumb|center|765px|Route of LPG from production to the end-consumer|alt=Route of LPG from production to the end-consumer]]Figure 2. Route of LPG from production to the end-consumer (adapted from graphic on <font color="#0b0118">WLPGA website</font>)<br/></p>
 <br/>
 == Cylinder Distribution Systems ==